Author Topic: The Cult Of Mithras (Read 1340 times)

patrick jane · « **on:** June 23, 2021, 08:08:54 pm »

The Cult Of Mithras

https://history.sfsu.edu/sites/default/files/2006_Giovanna%20Palombo.pdf

The male [god] they worship is a cattle rustler, and his cult they relate to the potency of fire.. .united by the handshake of the illustrious Father.” So wrote the Christian writer Firmicus Maternus about the followers of Mithras showing
much contempt and little understanding on one of the most widespread ancient
mystery religions—Mithraism.

The worship of Mithras—a god of Persian origin—was
part of the so-called “mystery cults” that developed in the East and rapidly spread
all over the provinces under Roman rule, reaching its greatest extent during the
second and third centuries A.D. The present analysis will limit its attention to three
areas only. It will first consider, Italy—mainly Rome and Ostia where this cult was
very popular—and Gallia-Germania-Noricum (modern France, Germany, and
Austria) and third, ancient Syria (modern eastern Turkey and Syria) as
representatives, respectively, of western provincial territories and an eastern
province.

In particular, two aspects will be the objects of investigation: Mithras’
iconography and inscriptions in order to identify his visual patterns, various
epithets, and associations with other deities, and the very nature of the Mithraic
religion as a mystery cult. The purpose of conducting an analysis of both the
Mithraic image, and of what it may have meant for Mithras’ worshippers to be part
of this mystery religion, will help explain the reasons for the cult’s widespread
popularity. This cult became very popular, specifically among the Roman soldiers
all over the empire, despite the fact that Mithras was the god of Rome’s enemies—
the Parthians.

I will argue that the key to understand Mithras’ popularity is to be
found, first of all, in his iconography and not his theology, namely in his simple and
yet powerful image. Secondly, as a mystery religion, Mithras’ cult not only had a
votive character, but also offered an opportunity for a secret brotherhood—an
organizational structure similar to a secret society of a Masonic type that must have
been particularly appealing for soldiers. Finally, the syncretic and universal aspects
of the Mithraic cult represent additional elements that can help explain the Parthian
god’s popularity among the Roman troops.

Before proceeding with the analysis of why Mithraism was so wide-spread
particularly among the soldiers, it is necessary to address the problem of the
sources. In contrast with Mithraism’s popularity and the fact that Mithraic
sanctuaries can be found all over the Roman provinces, historians are faced with a
dearth of literary source material on Mithras. This is not surprising and can be
explained in part by the fact that, as a mystery cult, Mithraism had an element of
secrecy.

Because the written evidence on the cult of Roman Mithras is very scarce
as few documents have survived, scholars have looked at evidence from material
culture and, in particular, they have relied on the comprehensive catalogue of
inscriptions and monuments which offers a valuable source about the Mithraic cult
and its worshippers.2 While this monumental list of epigraphical evidence provides information on both the patterns of nomenclature for the god Mithras and the people that were involved in this mystery cult, the archaeological remains—mainly of architectural and pictorial nature—help identify visual patterns associated with the Mithraic religion.

The few written documents available, the epigraphical material, and the visual elements from material culture will constitute the main base for the evidence presented in this article. Among the many problems in dealing with evidence of archaeological nature there is the fact that images, monuments, and artifacts speak their own language, therefore attempting to “translate” the visual into
text is a process that requires the help of various tools, such as an understanding of the social context and values of that particular past society.3 Thus, one should keep in mind that ancient Romans were polytheistic and that their concept of religion and relationship with the divine differed from the belief system of our modern, predominately monotheistic, society.4 In the case of Mithraism in particular, it is
necessary to consider anthropological aspects and sociological significance of ancient mystery cults in order to understand the appeal of the cult to many ancient Romans.

The cult of Mithras fascinated people in antiquity, and it has also raised much interest among modern scholars. Historians have produced a plethora of articles and books since 1896-l899. Mithraism has attracted an enormous amount of scholarly attention, mainly because of the supposed link with Christianity.6 In the last few decades, the focus on the cult of Mithras has been on theology, namely on
deciphering the “mystery” behind the mystery cult. Thus, many historians have
looked at the Mithraic iconography and from it they have extrapolated an abstract
meaning—often rather complex—that links Mithras to a deeper astronomical and
astrological paradigm.7

Other analyses have pointed out a convergence of
Neoplatonic ideas with the theology of Mithraism.8 In particular, a recent
interpretation of the so-called “Mithras Liturgy” has connected the latter to the
theurgy, or ritual practice of the Chaldaean Oracles.

Additionally, attempts have
also been made to interpret Mithras as something else or rather someone else, thus
speculating on the symbolism of the god and proposing an understanding of Mithras
and its cult in allegoric terms.’° Instead of analyzing the Mithraic theology in order
to understand the significance of Mithras and its cult, it is necessary to focus, respectively, on his image and on the aspect of this mystery religion as a social function and a bonding experience among its worshippers. First of all, in order to explain the god’s appeal a look at how Mithras was represented in mural paintings, reliefs, and statues, is instrumental.

A reason for the popularity of Mithras’ cult was in the power of its simple and at the same time evocative iconography. That Mithras may have had a deeper, secondary meaning is not to be excluded. The various interpretations of Mithraism within an astrological context fail to explain why the cult became so popular, particularly among soldiers. Most likely, the more abstract meaning was known to very few worshippers of the cult—the patres, or those at the top of the cult hierarchy. However, it was in the direct perception of Mithras’ image—a direct reading of his iconography that was accessible to the any common viewer—that one can find the “mystery” of t

he cult’s appeal. Overall, Mithras’ iconography presented an image that combined new and old, simple and familiar features with mote exotic ones.
With very few exceptions, Mithras’ iconography is very consistent throughout the Roman territories. Typically, he wears Persian clothing, such as a Phrygian cap, flying cloak, tunic, and trousers.1’ He is represented in the act of slaughtering a bull, which he holds down with one hand while with the other hand he holds a dagger (Mithras Tauroctonos). The Latin poet Statius described the scene of Mithras slaying the bull precisely as it is consistently found in archaeological evidence, namely with the god grabbin the bull by the horns and trying to pull the animal toward the opposite direction. 2 As part of the bull-killing scene, one may often find a dog, a snake, a scorpion, a crow (raven), and two torchbearers—identified as the deities Cautes (with torch up) and Cautopates (with torch down).’

3 Around this “standard” scene (tauroctony, or the bull slaying), the twelve signs of the zodiac also appear in some cases.’4 In addition, there are some images of a banquet between Mithras and the sun-god and representations of his birth from a rock.’5 His
peculiar birth not only appears in inscriptions and is represented in statues, but it is
also mentioned in Firmicus Maternus, who called Mithras O , or “the god
(born) from the rock,” and in Commodianus, who referred to the Persian god as
“invictus de petra natus [...] deus” (the invincible god born from a rock).16 finally,
other elements in the Mithraic imagery are the presence of stars on his flying cloak
or around his head, and sun rays and a nimbus also around his head. 17

Despite his Persian attire, Mithras’ image must have appeared very familiar
and rather appealing to the soldiers, since the god represents a hunter—or rather a
hero—and conveys the idea of strength, courage, and invincibility.’8 Mithras appears
as “an energetic god, active, unconquerable, unsurpassable.”9 The god’s image is
very powerful in its straightforwardness. The power of Mithras’ image lies in his
direct appeal: the act that the god is performing is not mysterious or unusual, but
rather evokes a familiar context to soldiers, namely a fight, a struggle in order to
subdue the dangerous “other” or the enemy.

Mithras was thought to be the creator
and father of all, the Demiurge, whose creative energy generated and still permeates
the entire cosmos. The god Mithras struggled with the white cosmic bull, which he
finally overcame and killed.20 The bull represented a force that had to be subdued,
like the enemies of Rome.

In essence, Mithras’ image is simple and primordial as it
incorporates recognizable elements (sun as the good force and bull as the
antagonist—a strong power to fight against) and, at the same time, it is peculiar and
unfamiliar (the god’s eastern attire). The Mithraic scene also portrays a scorpion, a
snake, and a dog that appear to be wanting to extract the life out of the slaughtered
bull by attacking its genitals. This image expresses a concept of cosmic opposites—
the duality of good versus evil (Mithras versus his antagonists). Thus, Mithraic
iconography is ultimately universal in his syncretism of old and new, familiar and
unfamiliar, good and bad.

Furthermore, the contrast between unfamiliar versus familiar features in
Mithras’ representation is mirrored in his nomenclature and connection with other
gods. On the one hand, like his attire, the god’s name is “foreign” since it is a
Latinized form, through the Greek, of the Avestan “Mithra” that means “pact,
contract, covenant.”2’ On the other hand, Mithras is familiar as his portrayal appears
in association with other deities, such as Apollo, Helios, tuppiter Dolichenus, and
Hercules, hence showing that the Persian god was of the same “status” as longestablished, well-known deities. For instance, one of the oldest Mithraic monuments from Roman times shows the association Apollo-Mithras-Helios.22 In general, various deities are present in Mithraic sanctuaries—deities that were supposed to protect each grade of initiate (such as Venus for the second grade).23

A strange- looking figure is often found connected to the cult of Mithras—a lion-headed god, who is encircled by the coils of a snake and may likely represent Aion, also identified as Chronos (time or cosmic eternity).
More importantly, Mithras is connected with the cult of the sot invictus, or unconquered sun? This is not surprising, since Mithras was not only linked to the idea of contract, but he was also the Persian god of light and justice. Although Mithras and the sun-god are separate in the Persian myth, yet their figures often tend to merge and blend.26 Altars to sot invictus have been found in Mithraic sanctuaries
along with inscriptions attributing that title (either sot invictus or deus sot invictus) to Mithras himself.27 Undoubtedly, the appellative of “invincible” given to Mithras along with the persistent emphasis upon light and brightness made this god very attractive in the eyes of the soldiers.28 In addition, the Mithras-sun association conferred a universal character to the deity, since the sun is a primordial and powerful element that was an object of worship in many ancient societies, both east and west.

In addition to the iconography, a look at the Mithraic membership, the places
of worship, the organizational structure, and at Mithraism within the context of
mystery religions can provide useful insights into the significance of the cult,
ultimately explaining its popularity. Mithraism was not exclusively the cult of the
Roman soldiers, since members of the imperial administrative service, merchants,
and freedmen also worshipped the Persian god—as it is well attested in the many
Mithraic sanctuaries in the ancient port of Ostia.

29 Since Roman religion was a
“social” religion—meaning that it was closely linked to the community, not to the
individual—a cult may fulfill different roles among different social groups.3° Roman
gods usually varied according to the community concerned: “they were, so to speak,
members of the same community as their worshippers.”3t Thus, the meaning of
Mithraism among the soldiers may not have been the same as the one among
civilians.

For the purpose of this analysis, the emphasis is placed on Mithraism as
the religion of Roman troops, because the cult of Mithras was predominantly
popular in the army and, in fact, it was the latter that had been responsible for
bringing this religious practice all over the Roman territories—from south-east
toward north-west. Additionally, Mithraism was confined almost exclusively to
men.32 Therefore, one should look at what made this god so appealing to men and
soldiers in particular.

Since the Roman cult of Mithras was mainly linked to soldiers, a look at
religions and cults among military men is instrumental. Mithraism can be defined
overall as the religion of the Roman soldiers par excellence during the empire.33 The
definition “religion of the Roman soldiers” instead of “religion of the Roman army”
is used on purpose and has its reason.

In fact, the Roman army had official religious
practices, such as the cult of the standards—which included the gold eagle, the
images of the emperor, the vexilium (flag), and the sacramentum (sacred oath). The
army also celebrated various religious ceremonies and festivals throughout the year,
as attested in the Feriale Duranum, a calendar found at Dura-Europos that marked
the numerous religious observations during the entire military religious year.33

These official religious observances intended to identify the life of the individual
soldier and of the individual legion with the destiny of Rome, maintained the esprit
do corps, and created a social structure based on values such as discipline, loyalty, and tradition.35 Additionally, since most religious celebrations coincided with public festivals of the civilian population, these religious practices connected the Roman
army—at least symbolically—to the society of Roman civilians.

However, Mithraism fell under the so-called unofficial army cults and served a different purpose. The cult of Mithras was the soldier’s personal religion as opposed to the army religion that was imposed from above.36 Roman soldiers needed something—or rather someone—they could identify with, and the “unconquerable” Mithras with his features of physical strength, courage, and victory over a dangerous antagonist fit well such need. Thus, soldiers must have felt drawn to this decidedly forceful god. The dualism of Mithraism also appealed to the soldiers, namely the struggle between good and evil, light and darkness, order and chaos in which Mithras was fighting on behalf of Rome as a good, civilized power against the disorderly barbarians.

In addition to membership, the physical setting of the cult of Mithras helps to define its character and meaning, and hence its appeal. Like Mithras’ portrayals
appear very uniform, his sanctuaries, or ,nithraea, also share similar features throughout the empire.37 The consistency in the architectural and pictorial features of the mithraea can be explained in view of the fact that “the religious use of space enabled the soldier to orient himself... Roman soldiers often moved from place to place, and the religious use of space helped keep them from becoming disoriented.”38 The mithraeum—or temple for the worship of Mithras—was built to resemble the cave (spetaeurn) in which Mithras was supposed to have captured and killed the divine bull. The ,nithraea were small and tunnel-like.39 Because it was supposed to resemble a cave, the space was rather dark and often underground and
was often decorated with the signs of the Zodiac in order to represent an image of the cosmos itself.4° The focus of the temple interior was a marble relief or a painting on the opposite end of the entrance, portraying Mithras killing the bull.

Two interesting elements emerge from the mithraeum spatial configuration. One characteristic is the small size of these temples—a peculiarity that suggests that the number of worshippers in any one place must have been also small. Thus, “the small group of men in the caves must have experienced an intimate feeling of togetherness.”4’ Instead of building bigger sanctuaries as the cult membership grew, Mithras’ worshippers kept utilizing a religious space that could accommodate few devotees at once, hence maintaining a sense of familiarity and intimacy within each
group. As a result, as they gathered in small groups, they were able to form a closekin brotherhood with welt-defined grades of membership.

42 Secondly, the
mithraeum itself was an intimate space that resembled a dinning room with Mithras,
as the host of the banquet, sitting at the head of the table. In fact, along the sides of
the nsithraeum, there were benches on which the worshippers reclined at ritual
meals.43 There is no reason to doubt that the allegoric scene representing Mithras
and Helios feasting together, which is frequently present in Mithraic iconography,
had a realistic counterpart in enjoyable banquets with plenty of food consumed by
the devotees.

The archaeological evidence confirms this. In excavated mithraea the
remnants of animal bones of various species clearly indicate that the benches on the
sides were not used just for praying, but also as couches on which substantial meals
were consumed. One can clearly see how the ritual became a social experience.

Thus, “the religion was always world-affirming rather than world-denying.”45
However, along with Mithras’ image as a hunter or victorious fighter, and
along with the small size of Mithraic community where devotees could closely
interact with one another, an element that played a significant role in the popularity
of Mithraism was its rank structure.

The cult of Mithras contributed to the creation
and consolidation of ties among the soldiers mainly because the Mithraic
community was a highly structured organization. In fact, the worshippers were
grouped according to seven levels or grades by which they progressed through
successive stages of initiation as mote of the mysteries of the cult were revealed to
them. The seven grades were Corax (Raven), Nymphus (Gryphon / Griffin or
Bridegroom or Embryo—scholars disagree on the translation of this term), Mites
(Soldier), Leo (Lion), Perses (Persian), Heliodrornus (Courier of the Sun), and Peter
(Father).

The Mithraic hierarchy must have reminded the soldier of the army
hierarchy; hence the idea of a well-structured order was something familiar to the
Mithraic worshipper. It was in the highly hierarchical structure of its community
that the cult of Mithras differed from most other mystery cults.
Mithras’ cult presented an organizational system similar to a “church order.”47

Every Mithraic unit was a small face-to-face group, in which relations of authority
were clearly defined by the seven grades and ultimately sanctioned by religious
beliefs.

The head of each group was the peter, or Father—an individual who had
reached the seventh grade of the Mithraic hierarchy. He embodied the highest
authority—all the members were subordinated to him—and, as emblems of his power,
he carried the Phrygian cap (like Mithras) and Saturn’s sickle, and wore a special ring38 He decided whom to admit to the cult, supervised the rituals, and was responsible for initiations and grade promotions.49 Thus, Mithraism can be seen as a “divine” replication of social, “ordinary” (in this case, military) experience, since it reinforced hierarchy and authority.50

Because Mithraism had a “rank” structure in the seven grades of the cult, it appealed both to the soldiers working their way up through the ranks and to the officers, who saw the Mithraic hierarchy as a religious duplication and reaffirmation of the military hierarchy.5’ This made the cult of Mithras a familiar practice in the eyes of the soldiers and a “safe” cult for the authorities. Mithraism included both
common soldiers and military officers, therefore it was not perceived as a suspicious club that may trigger revolts against the superiors.

52 As a matter of fact, there was no “revolutionary” message in the Mithraic cult. The typical worshipper of Mithras
as depicted in paintings is young and strong, the image of social conformity, not of marginality. His promotion through the grades was achieved only by acceptance of and submission to authority.53 There was no hint of any desire to break social boundaries in Mithraism. On the contrary, in its strict hierarchy, the entire secret ritual reinforced social boundaries. Ultimately, the cult of Mithras combined “the hierarchic and disciplined structures and values of its male members [...J with a new integrated view of the cosmos now completely structured in terms of masculine attributes”—a masculinity that was epitomized in the bull-slaying icon.

50 Since Mithraism intended to mirror the social organization in its religious hierarchy, this could explain the “almost” absence of women in the cult due to a replication of the
army structure—in which women were not present—and not necessarily a misogynist feature of the cult.55 It is also noteworthy that until about 195 A.D., there was a peculiar refusal of the Roman army to approve of the legal marriage of soldiers.

Therefore, “the religious fife of Mithraism was more closely modeled on the values
of the camp than of the domestic hearth.”56
More importantly, a major factor contributing to the popularity of Mithraism is
its very nature as a mystery cult. The diffusion of mystery religions, such as the cult
of Isis, the Great Mother, and Mithras, was an important religious phenomenon that
characterized the Roman Empire.57 In ancient times, religion was the product of
various concerns—political, social, and psychological.

For the Roman soldier in particular, religion provided a structure that helped him distinguish between Roman
and alien (“the other”, the enemy), between order and chaos. However, while this
function was mainly covered by the army official cults, it was rather in a mystery
cult—such as was the case of Mithraism—that the Roman soldiers could have found a
personal, more intimate shelter from the hazards of military life. The army proved
effective in its ability to control the natural fear in the soldiers’ lives by promoting
religious festivals, oaths, and the signa.

In addition, the strict military disciptina was certainly a powerful antidote against the unconscious impulse of fear. However, it
was in ritual behavior (and mysteries had well-defined rituals) that soldiers found
comfort for their own anxieties.56 Thus, Mithraism as a mystery religion was very
powerful in helping the soldiers dealing with their fears to a greater extent than the
official army cults, because of its votive character and the fact that it provided
protection by reinforcing ties among its adepts.

The concept of votive religion constituted the basis of a mystery cult.59 Most
historians have looked at mystery cults and defined them as a form of personal
religion aimed at some sort of salvation. Thus, many scholars have interpreted
Mithraism as a cosmic religion of salvation.65 If salvation of one’s soul had been
indeed at the core of this cult, one may have a difficult time explaining why
Mithraism had no flrncmry symbolism and there were no statues of the dead or
Mithraic sarcophagi.6t

On the contrary, the cult of Mithras and mysteries in general
arc to be understood as personal religions at a more elementary level, namely as the
practice of making vows. Mithraism shares in the general instrumental nature of
Roman religion that was characterized by a highly developed contractual relation to
the gods.62 tt may not be a coincidence that the name of Mithms itself indicates the
idea of contract.63 Worshippers—in this case, soldiers—made promises to Mithras through offerings and rituals expected protection in return, either because they were in danger or ill. The concept of do Ut des was a means to appease one’s agonizing experience of distress during military campaigns.tu Many Mithraic inscriptions clearly show this votive nature and express the devotee’s gratefulness towards the
god, who had provided protection.

65 Overall, Mithraism provided “vertical” as well as “horizontal” protection. One the one hand, protection came from above—from Mithras and the other deities associated with him, such as the protective gods of the seven grades. On the other hand, protection also came from the other worshippers within one’s Mithraic community—both from those of higher ranks and from one’s peers. Knowing that
one could count on divine assistance as well as on companions in both combat and
prayer, helped to reduce the anxieties of fighting in war. tt is also worth noting that in his myth Mithras appears as the one bringing world-order, strong, invincible, and, most importantly, unlike other gods, he does not die.66 The absence of death in the Mithraic myth must have provided the soldiers with a powerful sense of reassurance and self-confidence vis-a-vis dangers.

Mithraism was not only about coping with fear, seeking protection (divine or human), and reinforcing the notion of authority through a rigid—but at the same time familiar—hierarchical structure. Mithraism was also about creating ties, bonding together and the unconscious need to belong. Vertical tics were accompanied by equally strong horizontal ones. Mithraic groups emphasized their communal feeling by stressing the importance of the collectivity over the individual. It is worth noting that the term “Mithraist” is a modern scholarly creation. Instead, one name that
Mithras’ worshippers used for themselves was syndexioi, or “those linked by the
handshake.” Final admission into the Mithraic community was scaled by a
handshake (öciwatç) with the pater. Last but not least, we know that as a group, they were jointly united by the oath.67

A famous inscription, discovered in Rome on
the Campus Martius and written by the pater Proficentius, commemorates in verses
the founding of a mithraeum and refers to the handshake as a marker of Mithras’
worshippers;

This spot is blessed, holy, observant and bounteous: Mithras marked it,
and made known to Proficentius, Father of the Mysteries, That he should
build a dedicate a Cave to him; And he has accomplished swiftly,
tirelessly, this dear task That under such protection he began, desirous
That the Hand-shaken (Lat. syndexi) might make their vows joyfully for
ever. These poor lines Proficentius composed, Most worthy Father of
Mithras.66

It is noteworthy that the “cave” is consecrated to the god Mithras so that “vows”
could be made to him on behalf of the worshippers that are called “the Handshaken.” These verses reiterate three elements that characterize the Mithraic cult, namely that Mithraism was a religion ofsmall groups (a fact that appears clear from
the fact that most “caves” were incapable of hosting more than ten or twelve
individuals), that the cult had a votive character, and that its members were tied
together through a pact sealed by a handshake.

This act of handshaking was performed not only among the cult members but
also between Mithras and the sun-god, hence turning such action into a symbolic
marker of this cult. A recurrent scene in Mithraist iconography is the so-called “pact
of friendship”—an image in which Mithras and the sun-god stand in front of each
other as equal partners and shake their right hands (sometimes in front of an altar).69
Among the Greeks and Romans handshaking (iuncfio dextrarum, or joining of the
right hands) was not an everyday gesture as it is now in western societies. Rather, it
was a sign of very close friendship.

70 Often friends who returned from a long journey were received with a handshake, or the same gesture was used to sanction
an agreement.71 Therefore, with the handshake, Mithras and the sun-god are settling
a pact.72 The pact between the deities was the model for the ritual handshake
between the pater and the initiate.

Bound by both an oath and a handshake, Mithras’ worshippers must have
known one another very well and provided reciprocal help like the brothers of a
Masonic lodge. Thus, the cult also had a sociological aspect, not just a religious one.
As a cult of men and specifically soldiers, it had the features of a brotherhood—an
organization based on principles such as secrecy, loyalty, and unity in the fight for
mutual interests.

By creating a boundary between “those who belonged” and the
outsiders, it reinforced the idea of being Roman soldiers as opposed to the “others”
(the enemies), hence reinforcing the group’s inward-looking solidarity. Additionally, the element of secrecy created strong cohesiveness. One should not
ignore the fact that the Mithraic religious experience had “effects upon the earthy community, particularly in relation to the sense of mutual belonging.”73
Moreover, like any secret society of any given time, the cult of Mithras had a
rite of initiation based on the notion of re-birth, a highly hierarchical structure, and a
strong congregational aspect.

74 One can certainly speak of the Mithraic community
as being based on sodalitas (companionship), a society formed by socii and amid.75
Numerous inscriptions utilize the words socius and sodalicio.76 Indeed, the devoted
members must have spent together considerable amount of time, energy, and money
for the god and for their fellow-initiates. Obligations similar to those of private
amicitia might have included helping in burial and funeral, as was the case in other
mystery cults—although the evidence for it in regard to the Mithraic cult is scarce.77

In essence, the Mithraic communities were not only spiritual brotherhoods tied
together by spiritual bonds, but they were also associations that enjoyed the right of holding property, that provided legal assistance to his members, and that elected
officers.78

Thus, the aspect of the cult of Mithms as a social experience of bonding together makes sense especially when one considers the fact that soldiers were away
from home and most of the timc in unfamiliar environments. “The development of
the associative phenomenon of religious matters is also characteristic of a fairly
mobile population, where the individual was no longer part of a fixed family or a
city in the traditional sense of the word. These cultist clubs housed in the Mithraic
caverns ... gave the rootless immigrants to Rome [and—I would add—the soldiers as
well], of every race and class, the feeling that they had found the comfort of a piety
closer to gods and men.

”79 In essence, Mithraism sought to secure an “at-home”
feeling by strengthening social ties. Additionally, the cult of Mithras also served as
reinforcement of its members’ identity.8° Mithraism perfectly fit within the larger
context of the mystery religions, because “the mystery discourse established
sociopolitical identity for the alienated individual, whether rural (Eleusinian) or
urban (Isiac), male (Mithraic) or female (Dionysian).ss

A last element that can help explain the popularity of the cult of Mithras was
its universal and syncretic character, which stemmed from both its parthianitas and
romanhtas. The Persian origin of Mithraism is not much disputed, although there
may be no clear relationship with the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism.82 Mithras’
origin can be traced among the Indo-Aryan people. According to Plutarch, the cult
was popular among Cilician pirates, who introduced the celebration of the Mithraic
mysteries into the Roman world around the first century B.C.83 After defeating the
sea raiders,

Pompey seems to have settled a good number of them in Calabria—a fact
that helps explain how Mithraism arrived in Italy.84 However, it was not until the
end of the second century AD. that the worship of Mithras became widespread first
among the Roman soldiers in the east and then, moving westward and northward, all
over the provinces.85 Whether its point of origin was actually Parthia or Anatolia Syria, Mithraism has a clear connotation of parthianitas, which is attested by both the god’s attire and the use of the Persian word “nama” (= hail! or long live...!) as a form of greeting among Mithras’ worshippers.

86 Both Firmicus Matemus and Porphyty stressed the Persian origin ofthe god.87 Although Roman Mithras maintained Parthian attributes, his cult underwent
some changes when it became popular among Roman troops. Before his introduction into the Roman world, Mithras in association with the sun-god was simply a symbol of fertility.88 From the bull, the plantllife tvas born (see the ears of grain coming out of the bull’s tail). His cult arrived in the western part of the Roman Empire from the Hellenized East.89 Even Alexander the Great is said to have been initiated into Persian Mithraism. According to Q. Curtius Rufus, “the king himself with his generals and staff passed around the ranks of the armed men, praying to the
sun and Mithra and the sacred eternal fire to inspire them with courage worthy of their ancient fame and the monuments of their ancestors.”9° When the god arrived in the West, his myth focused in particular on the killing of the bull, the concept of re birth, the ideals of strength and invincibility, and the dualism of order-chaos.

More importantly, the god’s exotidness may have made him attractive, in a manner similar
to other “foreign” deities such as the Egyptian isis. In essence, his parthianitas made him popular. His foreignness gave him a reassuring connotation of impartiality—a virtue that may have been very appealing to a diverse group such as the Roman imperial army.
Despite the fact that the worship of Mithras had a Persian oriin and maintained traces of its native cult, Mithraism became “utterly Roman.”9 It was “Roman” in the sense that the cult had a “pragmatic” feature. The strong element of pragmatism in Roman society and culture influenced the Weltanschauung of its citizens in many aspects, including that of religion. Not only did Roman religion with its polytheistic character allow for the worship of many deities at the same time, but also it was specifically the fundamental pragmatism of ancient Romans that caused them to try other practices when the old rituals appeared ineffectual.

92 This opened the way to foreign cults, like the mystery cults. In Roman religion there
was no jealousy or exclusivity when it came to worshipping deities, but instead a
sense of inclusiveness. The pragmatic aspect of Mithraism can also be seen in both
its previously discussed nature as a votive religion, as well as in its willingness to
include other gods within the cult. Just as rornanitas extended all over the provinces
thorough the extension of Roman citizenship, the cult of Mithras integrated other
deities, hence assuming a trait of universality.

An attractive feature of Mithraism was that each grade of thc hierarchy had a
specific protective deity and associated emblems. The deities were respectively—in
order from the first to the seventh grade—Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Moon, Sun,
and Saturn. Therefore, the mithraeum presented itself as a sort of pantheon, a
sanctuary including the main and best-known deities. This can help explain the
appeal of the Mithras’ religion in the eyes of soldiers coming from a variety of
different places, namely its universal and comprehensive character.

Although
centered on the figure the Mithras, Mithraism was more than just that god’s cult. It
was a cult that included other deities and that also incorporated the signs of the
zodiac into an all-inclusive system.
Thus, Mithras combined elements that may have appeared exotic (his origin
and attire) with aspects that were very familiar to the Roman world. The god
remained in part Persian and became in part Roman—resulting in a syncretic
character that made him universal. On the one hand, Mithras’ universality stems
from his own parthianiras or the fact that Mithras was a Parthian, hence a foreign
god that did not come from any of the Roman provinces.

This conferred him a
neutral and impartial character—and ultimately a universal one—making him easily
accepted in an army formed by soldiers that came from all different parts of the
empire. The idea that Mithraism stands as evidence for the “barbarization” of the
army is to be rejected.93 On the other hand, the cult of Mithras was universal in the
sense that it was very Roman and all-inclusive of Roman religion.

In essence,
because of its syncretic character, Mithraism was the religion of no one place and of
all places, of no one single god and of many gods, hence it was universal. Although
some historians have seen Mithraism and the worship of the sun god (the latter
promoted especially during the reigns of the emperors Elagabalus and Aurelian) as a
“growing drift into monotheism,” the presence of many other gods in the Mithraic
shrines makes Mithraism appear as the apogee of paganism (more precisely,
henotheism) and of rolnanitas.

In conclusion, the cult of Mithras was popular among the Roman soldiers for a
number of reasons, including the god’s powerful image, the highly hierarchical
Mithraic structure, the very nature of Mithraism as a mystery cult and its emphasis
on votive character, the aspect of brotherhood that each community fostered, and the
inclusiveness of other deities that made the religion universal. In his simplicity and
direct iconographical representation, Mithras was very compelling for Roman
soldiers, since the god embodied notions such as strength, invincibility, and
courage, and he marked a clear boundary between “us” and the “other” in the
dualism of good versus evil and light versus darkness.

The rank structure provided a system that was familiar to the soldiers in reinforcing hierarchy, authority, and ultimately order; whereas the votive character of the cult helped them cope with their fears and anxieties. Most importantly, Mithras’ widespread popularity throughout the Roman Empire resulted from his syncretic and universal character, and from the nature of the Mithraic community as not only a religious group, but also as a brotherhood. Moreover, small ,nithraea meant that the group of worshippers that met there was also small. The space itself was utilized for communal ceremonial meals. Even if coated with religious ritual, the act of eating together was undoubtedly a social function. Vertical and horizontal ties constituted unifying forces that were at least as compelling—if not more—as any promise for salvation.

Without completely discarding the significance of Mithraic theology (including its complex symbolism and liturgy), Mithraism was not simply a religious community, but rather a religion and a community. In essence, the cult of Mithras was a social and psychological phenomenon and not merely a religious practice, because it was about bonding as much as it was about spirituality.

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The Cult Of Mithras

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